Nature of Universals from "summary" of The Problems of Philosophy by Bertrand Russell
The problem concerning universals is one of the most fundamental in philosophy. It is a problem that has puzzled philosophers for centuries, and one that continues to elicit a wide range of opinions and theories. At its core, the problem concerns the nature of the things we perceive in the world - are they individual entities, or are they instances of more general qualities or properties?One way of approaching this problem is through the concept of universals. Universals are general qualities or properties that are shared by multiple individuals. For example, the quality of redness is a universal that is shared by all red objects. The question then arises - what is the nature of these universals? Are they real entities that exist independently of the things that instantiate them, or are they merely concepts that we use to classify and understand the world? One popular view is that of realism, which holds that universals are real entities that exist independently of the things that instantiate them. According to this view, universals are just as real as individual objects, and they exist in the world in a separate realm. This view is often associated with Plato, who believed in the existence of a realm of forms where universals such as beauty, justice, and truth exist in their purest form. On the other hand, there is the view of nominalism, which holds that universals are merely concepts that we use to classify and understand the world. According to this view, universals do not exist independently of the things that instantiate them, but are instead created by our minds as a way to organize our perceptions. This view is often associated with philosophers such as William of Ockham, who famously argued that entities should not be multiplied beyond necessity. Somewhere in between these two extremes is the view of conceptualism, which holds that universals exist, but only insofar as they are conceived by the mind. According to this view, universals are not independent entities, but are instead mental constructs that we use to make sense of the world. This view allows for the existence of universals, but only in a limited sense that is dependent on human cognition.- The nature of universals is a complex and multifaceted problem that has puzzled philosophers for centuries. The debate between realism, nominalism, and conceptualism continues to be a central issue in metaphysics, and one that is unlikely to be resolved anytime soon. Ultimately, the question of whether universals are real entities or merely concepts will continue to challenge philosophers
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